Prefrontal Cortex The Very Front Of The Brain Psychology Essay

Prefrontal Cortex The Very Front Of The Brain Psychology Essay The Prefrontal Cortex is the very front of the brain, located right beneath the forehead and is the anterior region of the frontal lobe. The prefrontal cortex is a very important area in the brain and is the most susceptible to injury. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for the functions of decision making, whether right or wrong, working memory, personality expression and cognitive behaviors. The prefrontal cortex has major neurotransmitters that are involved directly in its proper functioning for example, glutamate and dopamine. The prefrontal cortex can be affected by diseases for example, Parkinsons disease and Schizophrenia. The prefrontal cortex is among the last regions of the brain to develop therefore its functions and disorders are still being researched. The prefrontal lobe is connected to the anterior region of the frontal lobe. The prefrontal lobe volume increases slowly until the age of eight, then a prefrontal growth spurt increases in between the ages of eight and fourteen years. In contrast with other brain areas the prefrontal cortex is one of the last region to development therefore the functions and disorders are not immediately apparent (Kanemura 195). As studied in an experiment called the Somatic Marker Hypothesis one can infer some of the prefrontal cortex functions. Although these experiments have been performed the results do not apply to the entire prefrontal cortex. A prefrontal cortex function in the human brain is decision making and human reasoning. Some of the decision making depends on consciousness and overt cognition where as others do not. Those processes that depend on conscious and cognition are dependent on the sensory images that are directly coordinated to the early activity of cortices. All of the dependent processes of consciousness and cognition regardless of the imagery are dependent on support processes for example, attention and working memory. Further studies demonstrate that damage to the prefrontal cortex prohibits the use of the somatic signals necessary for guiding decision making in an advantageous direction (Bechara 428). In addition to decision making being a main function working memory is equally an important function. These functions have been assessed and results demonstrate that their functions come from different and distinct areas of the prefrontal cortex. While decision making processes occur in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, working memory processes occur in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Short-term memory is the type of working memory in relationship to prefrontal cortex (Humana Press 204) Prefrontal Cortex Neurotransmitters A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance released by neurons that send nerve impulses from one cell to the next in the nervous system. A major neurotransmitter in the prefrontal cortex is Glutamate. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and is the most abundant amino acid in the diet. In the prefrontal cortex glutamate is associated with cognitive function. In schizophrenic patients abnormal levels of glutamate impair cognitive function. Another major neurotransmitter involved in the function of the prefrontal cortex is dopamine. Dopamine is commonly associated with parts of the brain that stimulate pleasure, which provide enjoyment and reinforcement to enforce a person proactively to perform certain activities. Reduced levels of dopamine impair working memory in the prefrontal cortex (Damasio 1413). Diseases that affect the Prefrontal Cortex Parkinsons disease and schizophrenia are two diseases that affect the prefrontal cortex. In both of the disorders the reduction of dopamine to the prefrontal cortex impairs working memory. Conversely, increasing dopamine levels in patients with these diseases improves their performance of test that utilizes their working memory. Parkinsons disease has been considered a paradigm of degenerative diseases of the nervous system characterized by motor impairment due to malfunction and loss of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta. Recent clinical data shows modifications in behavior, personalilty changes, and cognitive impairment that lead to dementia. (Ferrer 89) Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is characterized by abnormalities in the perception or expression of reality. In Schizophrenia working memory and cognitive deficits are in association with prefrontal cortex dysfunction. (Manoach 285) Conclusion In conclusion, the prefrontal cortex is an important region of the frontal lobe that functions in decision making, cognitive behaviors, working memory, and personality expression. The prefrontal lobe has major neurotransmitters that assist in the communication of impulses from cell to cell throughout the nervous system. The reduction of those neurotransmitters in the prefrontal cortex may lead to diseases that affect the important functions of the cortex. The prefrontal lobe is one of the last regions of the brain to develop therefore leaving scientist with many research questions about its functions and possible disorders it may cause.

Peaches Essay -- Literary Analysis, Reginald McKnight

In the story â€Å"Peaches†, Reginald McKnight introduces his main characters, one being Marcus. Marcus is a good guy, but he is described in different ways, due to his confidence and insecurity. Throughout the work, author Reginald McKnight takes great care to illustrate situations and describe feelings and personalities that many men experience. This way, even though Marcus is having trouble controlling himself around other people and arrogant at times, he still tries to be a better person for Rita and for himself. He does this by going out of the country to experience other cultures and enhance his morals. On one level Marcus demonstrates that he is incredibly confident, on the other level he shows signs of being insecure, manipulative, unstable and incapable of achieving change. Marcus’ actions continually demonstrate how confident he is. Whether he is next door or across the country, Marcus always has his eyes set out for Rita because he sees her as _______. While, he claims â€Å"I have had relationships with Black women and Hispanic women, and Asian women† (75), thinking his experiences with other women instantly make him capable of understanding Rita. Because of ______, Marcus thinks such an understanding of Rita would be ________. He is so eager to be with her that he fails to see her as an individual. To Marcus, past experiences are enough to sustain a healthy relationship. According to Marcus, he had â€Å"been through this before† (75) and told Rita she could tell him anything, thinking it had to do with a cultural gap. In fact, Marcus said to Rita, â€Å"You can tell me. I think I’d understand† (75). [What is he referring to here?] His confidence paired with his need for Rita’s recognition and approval makes it appear that his confidenc... ...anipulative, and unstable. In creating a character so confident, insecure, manipulative, and unstable, Reginald McKnight also creates a character we can sympathize with. McKnight created a sense that Marcus was a confident individual, who set himself apart from society, but in doing so, he set himself up for failure. Where the one woman who could make all the difference began to fear him. Once that happened, everything went downhill as soon as Marcus began to dismiss Ritas response at any given point. Whether or not he was fully aware, Marcus built walls around him and avoided speaking about his personal life with any sort of depth. This, if anything, makes us aware that negative remarks and statements can lead to a very negative result. We are forced to form our own conclusion and conform to the fact that no matter how many miles away, one person may never change.

Digital Audio

Digital Audio refers to the reproduction and the transmissions of a stored sound in a digital format. This includes things like CDs or mp3s and other forms of sound that can be stored on a computer. In contrast for instance say the telephone system, which is stored in a completely different format which is called the analogue system. In sound recording and reproduction systems, digital audio refers to a digital representation of the audio waveform for processing.Digital Audio came about due to its usefulness when recording and distribution in sound. The modern day usage of this system is through the internet to post put songs on web pages and videos on YouTube depends on digital recording and digital HYPERLINK â€Å"http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Audio_compression_(data)† o â€Å"Audio compression (data)† compression algorithms. One of the good things about using this system is that it reduces the cost of the distribution because it is not a physical object.Also it is v ery easy to access because nowadays if people want something or need something they go on the internet. In an analog system sounds are usually made physically and are recorded into a mic which is transformed into a electrical representation of a waveform, which is stored or transmitted. Analog audio signals are susceptible to noise and distortion, unavoidable due to the innate characteristics of electronic circuits and associated devices.In the case of purely analog recording and reproduction, numerous opportunities for the introduction of noise and distortion exist throughout the entire process. When audio is digitized, distortion and noise are introduced only by the stages that precede conversion to digital format, and by the stages that follow conversion back to analog. Digital Audio Workstation or DAW is one of the commonly used terms in home music production environment.Yet some are still confused especially the beginners in music production with no electrical/sound engineering background as to what is really the meaning of Digital Audio Workstation? The fact is that, it’s so hard to understand what is digital audio workstation without giving the beginner; a complete information of how everything starts and end in music production. It’s why this lengthy post is perfect for those completely new in digital-based home recording or recording music using computers!I should have written this a long time ago, anyway its good that I put some importance of posting this one. Let’s get started.. First, you need to understand how the music goes into your computer. Your music is a sound wave which is an analog signal, a continuous form of signal(e. g. a sine wave). A musical instrument or a disturbance (e. g a water droplet falling into a pail of water) and can cause vibrations in the air that causes it propagate in the form of a sound wave.When these air pressure vibrations reaches your ear, you will perceived it as a sound if the pressure is str ong enough to cause vibrations in your ear drum and if the frequency is audible (20Hz to 20,000Hz). The music you hear are actually composed of musical notes which are sinusoidal in nature and has two properties which are: a. ) Amplitude (how strong are the pressure vibrations, which is usually measured by SPL or sound pressure level using decibels). b. ) Frequency( how high or low is the pitch of the sound wave, measured in Hertz)

Cell Phones Should Be Allowed While Driving †Agree or...

Stephanie Davis 9/14/12 US. History and Government Ms. Thomas Cell Phones Should Be Allowed While Driving – Agree or Disagree In my opinion cell phones should not be allowed while driving. The reason in which I say this is because if you have your cell phone out while driving you can cause injury or death upon both you and/or another individual either in your car or another. While driving you are to pay full attention to the road and where you’re driving to and not the phone it is a distraction. For an example, On July 10, 1998 a male of the age 16 sent his 18 year old brother who was driving home a text message saying to bring home food. Because of that text his brother crashed while in the middle of reading it and died†¦show more content†¦When you add the potential distractions of texting or talking on the phone while driving the equation and the situation could be become extremely dangerous very quickly. Teenagers are the most likely to use a cell phone while driving because they always have something to do. Lets say for example you are driving and you are texting and during the time tha t you are texting your head is down and your crossing a stop light and at the same time a big truck is coming, you would end up dead or severely damaged with probably a concussion or a coma. Website Citing * â€Å"2011 Distracted Driving Statistics† - http://www.edgarsnyder.com/car-accident/cell-phone/cell-phone-statistics.html *lt;http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=150549Show MoreRelatedPersuasive Essay on Cell Phone Driving1100 Words   |  5 Pagesuse of cell phones in drivers have been linked too frequently in accidents. There are too many distractions in life as it is, are we so arrogant to think that we are such amazing drivers that we can do several things at once? Most accidents involving cell phones wouldn t have happened if the driver wasn t distracted. When we drive that should be the only activity we are doing. Posted by: Gri5Helpful Report Post Like Reply 0 0 Cell phone usage while driving shouldRead MoreSocial Medias Impact On Distracted Driving1103 Words   |  5 PagesEnzugusi Distracted Driving Distracted driving is a very serious and controversial topic. Transportation plays such a huge role in people’s lives considering everyone has a busy schedule and they want to get to where they are going quickly while staying connected. There are 600,000 drivers attempting to use their phone at any given time throughout each and every day. To give some perspective on the issue, The National Safety Council reports that cell phone use while driving leads to 1.6 millionRead MoreThe Issue Of Texting And Driving Essay1700 Words   |  7 Pageshit a man with two tons of steel at forty miles per hour with no one else around; I was texting and driving. 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Teenagers have a very hard time â€Å"multitasking† while driving, posing more of a hazardRead MoreMobile Phone Usage Patterns Amongst University Students: a Comparative Study Between India and Usa9448 Words   |  38 PagesSayan Chakraborty. Mobile phone usage patterns amongst university students: A comparative study between India and USA. A Master’s Paper for the M.S. in I.S degree. April, 2006 . 53 pages. Advisor: Diane Kelly Mobile phones are one of the most common information access devices with almost 31% of the global population having access. This exploratory study investigated usage patterns of, and attitude about, cell phones among university students in a mature market (United States) and a rapidly growingRead MoreCar Accidents in Lebanon3057 Words   |  13 Pagesdiffer in the importance of their implementation. 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It is much easier to talk about your feelings online than it is to talk about them with a real person face-to-face.Read MoreMobile Phones5820 Words   |  24 Pagesï » ¿Mobile Phones: A boon or a bane By Ankita S., ahmedabad, India More by this author Email me when Ankita S. contributes work Image Credit: Joseph S., San Anselmo, CA Is a knife useful instrument or a perilous weapon? It depends on how it is used. Same implies with the case of technology. The greatest invention are those which affect the mass of people; and of those greatest invention is cell phones .It would be very ungrateful on our parts not to recognise how imperative are they to us. Cell phonesRead MoreDeification of Technology2086 Words   |  9 Pagesthe term technology in this essay is modern technology – from telephones and computers to stem-cell research and cloning. Currently we are living literally in the age of technology, meaning it is impossible to live without technology. In theory of course we could still survive or exist without technology, but what I mean by living is not surviving, or simply the physical qualities our bodies have while we are living, but being part of the society and being a more or less accepted human being amongRead MoreGun control8728 Words   |  35 Pagesoppose or support gun control. Not so. We h ave a range of alternatives. Even this way of speaking oversimplifies our choices since there are two distinct scales on which to place alternatives. One scale concerns the degree (if at all) to which guns should be abolished. This scale moves from those who want no abolition (NA) of any guns, through those who want moderate abolition (MA) - to forbid access to some subclasses of guns - to those who want absolute abolition (AA). The second scale concerns the

Organizational Diversity At The Workplace - 1355 Words

Organizational Diversity in the Workplace I. Introduction: Today, more and more organizations are moving towards the analysis of how to implement diversity as a core value. For an organization to hold people accountable for diversity expectations, leaders must implement, have a clear understanding, and practice diversity policies and procedures (Williams, 2013). By outlining a foundation together with a lateral approach leaders can encourage diversity understanding (Williams, 2013). Knowledgeable leaders are able to make certain that people are being held accountable for diversity violations and ensure that organizations are doing business that reflects its core values (Williams, 2013). The changes and demands of today’s organizations require leaders to be more aware of diversity issues. Immediately addressing diversity issues allows cooperation’s to be more productive and competitive (Kotter, 1980). However, without this awareness and much needed skill leaders run the risk of being overwhelmed by the organization which could cause power struggles that result in reduced initiative, innovation, and morale (Kotter, 1980). Most managerial, technical, and professional jobs have experienced an increase of diversity among people within organizations. Strong power and influence leadership skills are needed due to this increase of diversity (Kotter, 1980). As organizations of all kinds engage with issues of diversity and inclusion, they must frequently create new strategies thatShow MoreRelatedDiversity And Its Impact On Diversity975 Words   |  4 PagesDiversity Diversity represents the â€Å"multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people† (Kinicki Kreitner, 2013). It pertains to the host of individual differences that make all of us unique and different from one another. Diversity in an organization continues beyond hiring employees of numerous backgrounds, but involves embracing and empowering all minorities. Thankfully, globalization and strategic alliances have transformed business economies drastically to set upRead MoreDiversity, Diversity And Culture Is The Most Important Strategy That Needs Be Address?1179 Words   |  5 PagesIn international business the topics of diversity and culture is one the most important strategy that needs be address. Making the decision to outsource for profit gain will not necessarily happen if preparation of cultural change is not in place first. What is values and a norms in a company’s country may be offensive to other social groups of people. For example, in Germany lack of attention to diversity and culture had a serious impacts on Walmart’s position. 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JPMorgan - Corporate Social Responsibility Essay examples

The expectation that businesses behave responsibly and positively contribute to society all while pursuing their economic goals is one that holds firm through all generations. Stakeholders, both market and nonmarket, expect businesses to be socially responsible. Many companies have responded to this by including this growing expectation as part of their overall business operations. There are companies in existence today whose sole purpose is to socially benefit society alongside businesses who simply combine social benefits with their economic goals as their company mission. These changes in societal expectations and thus company purpose we’ve seen in the business community over time often blurs the line of what it means to be socially†¦show more content†¦JPMorgan Chase is amongst the big four banks in the U.S. with Bank of America, CitiGroup, and Wells Fargo. According to Bloomberg, in of October 2011 they surpassed Bank of America as the largest bank by assets. JPM organ Chase Co is considered to be a universal bank. When a stakeholder visits JPMorgan’s website market or nonmarket, they will find a section dedicated to corporate social responsibility. Most companies provide easy access to this information along with an annual report on their initiatives that year and how they plan to maintain and even further their social responsibility in the next years. In the CSR section companies typically provide us with a short opening statement about their mission in social responsibility at JPMorgan it is the following â€Å"At JPMorgan Chase Co., corporate responsibility always has been central to how we do business, starting with operating with integrity in all we do and extending to all the ways we help our clients and communities navigate a complex global economy. We strive to develop innovative programs that leverage the core strengths, capabilities and expertise of our business and our people – and those of our partners – to maximize our impact. 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The core of the bank has existed for over two hundred years and has become the giant it has through several mergers and acquisitions over its history. On top of this, Wall Street and the businesses that occupy it are continuously under public scrutiny due to the unethical behaviors that tend to be common in the industry. This has led to a public discontent for the industry, but JPMorgan Chase Co. is attempting to overcome thatRead MoreCase Study : Manager And Assistant Branch Manager1126 Words   |  5 Pagesand financial transaction processing and asset management. J.P. Morgan Co. se rves millions of consumers in the United States and millions of clients from consumers, to small businesses, up to government clients. (De Villa, 2014) (The History of JPMorgan Chase, 2014) J.P. Morgan Co. is built on the foundation of more than 1,200 institutions that have come together throughout the years to form today’s company. Since 1799, in New York City many of their heritage firms like J.P. Morgan Co., TheRead MoreJPMORGAN CHASE Essay2891 Words   |  12 PagesJPMorgan Chase is one of the oldest financial services company dating back over 200 years. It has $2 trillion in assets and operations in more than 60 countries. JPMC’s corporate strategy is it provides services and products in major capital markets. JPMorgan Chase, well known nationally and globally, is leading in investment banking, financial services for consumers, small business and commercial banking, financial transaction processing, asset management, and private equity. AccordingRead More White Collar Crime at JP Morgan Chase Essay1300 Words   |  6 PagesCorporate crime has become increasingly common over the past couple of decades. It seems that every big corporation today has some type of dark side. With the constant trials against corporate officials it seems that many high profile companies can no longer be trusted. 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An Apologia for Byzantine Architecture Essay Example For Students

An Apologia for Byzantine Architecture Essay A session at tltc 1992 College Art Association was entitled The Byzantine and Islamic ‘Other: Orientalism and Art History. Among many related issues, it examined the marginalizations of Byzantine studies within the discipline of an history: Byzantium has become exoticizod, isolated from Western European developments, and identified as the â€Å"Other In a provocative paper. Robert Nelson pointed out that no survey tcxtlxsok presents the Byzantine period as contemporaneous w ith medieval Europe. Byzantium is cither viewed as the end of Antiquity or as ihe beginning of the Dark Ages. Eater Byzaniinc developments—those coeval with the Romanesque and Gothic styles of Western Europe — are usually omitted, not lilting into a neatly encapsulated, linear view of European cultural history. Most textbooks sim ply stop with Hagia Sophia in Constantinople or with San Marco in Venice But the separation of Byzantium from medieval Europe goes beyond the textbooks. Many medieval ists are now of the opinion that Byzantine civilization is not a pan of European history, thus justifying its complete omission from their teaching. I’ve often suspected that there was more interchange of ideas between Byzantium and West during the Middle Ages than there is between scholars of the respective areas today My own view is that Byzantine studies have noi be come marginalized—for if they had. they would now hold a more commanding position in our post-structuralist dis courses. Rather, they have only been semi-marginalized, fall ing through the cracks between the main line and the truly exotic. Part of the fault for this lies with the Byzanlinists. under the authoritative guidance of Dumbarton Oaks we have learned to emphasize cultural history: thus. Byzantine   architecture is best understood as a reflection of the liturgy, monasticism. and imperial ceremonial rather than as a part of larger developments in European or world architecture. At the same time the sweeping generalizations of scholars like Rivoira. Stray gowski, and others have long since been discounted.   For example, wc dont need the monuments of Early Christian Syria to explain the origins of the Roman esque twin-towered facade: the church at Qalb Lozch and St.-Etienne at Caen arc separated by centuries and by thou sands of kilometers, and they must represent independent developments.- Nor do wc need the basilica of liagios Deni etnos at Thessaloniki to justify the Western European devel opment of the alternating support system prevalent in German Romanesque churches, such as those at Gcmrodc and Hil desheim. And in spite of Siraygowskis enthusiasm, Arme nian church architecture has not proven to be the missing link for the origins of Romanesque structural articulation. Byzantine architecture is by todays view more distant from Western Europe than it appeared to be one hundred years ago. It may be better viewed as a parallel development, but it was certainly not without some degree of interchange. The domed churches in Southern Italy and in Aquitaine may only be properly understood w ith a Byzantine prototype The use ol the square bay topped by a hemispherical dome on pcnilcn lives is characteristic of all of these buildings, and the fivc domcd plans of St.-Front at Ptfrigueux and S Marco ai Venice ultimately derive from the church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. Similarly, the appearance of the flying but tresses in Byzantium must reflect Gothic construction during die Latin Occupation of the thirteenth century : for example, die form of the single flying buttress bracing the apse of the Chora in Constantinople is somewhat similar to those at Luon Cathedral. Stained glass and heraldry also may appear in Byzantium as Western introductions, although both of these arc problematic.’ Ncvcrthclc.vs. the idea persists that the Byz antine period preceded the medieval: I suspect that in many instances Byzantium is dismissed precisely because it can no longer be systematically mined for sources and influences. In spite of the objective distancing that has occurred in recent scholarship, it is nevertheless difficult to view Byz antine architecture without preconceptions based on a knowl edge of Western medieval architecture. That is to say. our picture of Byzantine architecture has been colored by the development of Western European architecture in the same   period. Wc arc consequently programmed to expect some thing like a linear pattern of evolution, new structural achievements, and building on the grandest of scales. Byzan tine architecture fails to live up to such great expectations, and. accordingly, it has been dismissed by medievalists as small, stugnant. and dull.’ Arc such accusations justified, or do they simply reflect the cultural baggage we carry as medievalists? In this paper. I shall attempt to rescue Byzan tine architecture from utter disregard by correcting several popular misconceptions. First misconception: Byzantine architecture is small be cause the masons were incapable ol building anything larger (Figs. 1-2). In the study of medieval architecture, creativity is often linked with size: big is seen as better, and archi- tectural inventiveness is tied to structural innovatio n on the grandest of scales Limited scale becomes equated with limited skill. Certainly nothing like llagu Sophia was at tempted after tire sixth century, but it really wasnt necessary. Built to be unique. Ilagia Sophia remained a white elephant through most of its later history. To expect later architec ture to follow suit ignores some basic functional consider ations Students of the Byzantine liturgy have emphasized the â€Å"privatization of Byzantine worship: both lay turd mo nastic congregations were small, even in urban areas. The architectural response took the form of numerous small-scale churches with annexed chapels Within the churches a series of independent, subsidiary spaces w as created, enveloping the naos—as at St. Panteleimon ai Nerezi (1164). where the four corner bays arc filled by domed chapels . This stands in contrast to Western developments such as the cbcvcl and side aisle chapels Thai similar concerns were addressed in very different manners in the Last and in the West may be instructive. For example, in the eleventh century the Holy Sepulchre in Je rusalem was rebuilt bv the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomachus in a typical Byzantine manner .1 The founh-ccntury Basilica had been destroyed and was not re built; instead, the Anastasis Rotunda, containing the Tomb of Christ, became the focus of the complex A system of sub- sidiary chapels on two levels was joined to the Rotunda, the most important connected by a porticocd courtyard. This series of independent, private devotional spaces served the needs of the Byzantine visitor. Following the successful com pletion of the First Crusade in 1099, much of the Byzantine addition was replaced, in spite of its relative newness. Tire Crusader â€Å"improvement actually attempted a Western solu tion to the same problem the Byzantine reconstruction had addressed: the unification of tle numerous sites within the complex. The major chapels were joined under one roof as a transept and pilgrimage choir replaced the courtyard, and an ambulatory with radiating apsidioles replaced the portico and chapels. Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture EssayThe attempt to develop a typological framework for Byzantine architecture based on a Western European model may have also misdirected our interpretation ol Bvzantmc monasticism. and the subject deserves a brief excursus. From the ninth century’ onward. European monasteries follow a carefully constructed typology that corresponded in many ways to requirements for monastic life set forth in the Rule of St. Benedict. Beginning with the St. Gall plan, a standard organization of church, cloister, and refectory was estab- lished In contrast. By antine monasticism. following tire Rule of St. Basil, was not so rigidly organized, nor were the units so large—nor, unfortunately, are they so well-preserved as their Western European counterparts. Seeking an archi tectural typology lor Byzantine monasticism. Orlandos and others have focused almost exclusively on Post-Byzantine monuments, such as the monasteries of Mount Athos. New excavations, such as those on Ml. Papikion in northern Greece and at numerous sites in the former Yugoslavia, only serve to emphasize the lack of an established system of or ganization for Eastern monasticism. The translation and commentary of all Byzantine typika (monastic rules), now in preparation for publication by Dumbarton Oaks, should greatly assist our investigations. I suspect that the view of Byzantine monasticism from a Western perspective has led to the willful misidcntihca tion of well-organized architectural complexes as monastic. Stephen Hill has recently suggested the removal of Alahan Manastir and several other Anatolian complexes from the category of monasteries, and others arc long overdue for reassessment. In a recent book Lyn Rodlcy examines the rock-cut monasteries of Cappadocia. a region in which con siderably more evidence is preserved than elsewhere in the Byzantine Empire.- She divides the monasteries into two types: courtyard monasteries and refectory monasteries. Those which possess a refectory (or tmpeza) with a rock-cut tabic and benches tend to be small and disordered, but with the church and refectory in central positions. The so-called courtyard monasteries have a well organized grouping of rooms around a rock cut court with portico along the main facade and the church if one is included—off to one side. The latter type usually have a large, iransversally or longitudinally-planned hall and fre quently a centrally-planned hall in tire main suite of rooms, but they have no clearly identified refectory. Traditionally Cappadocia has been viewed as an area of monastic settlement. This view was expressed as a romantic reaction to the harsh landscape by early Western visitors, and it was further developed by Father Jerphanion. who began the systematic study of the region His focus was the Ciflreme Valley, which clearly a high density of mon- asteries. As scholars have explored and recorded other set tlements of the region, they inevitabl y identify them as monastic, and one might begin to believe that Cappadocia was inhabited solely by monks. Were all of these settlements actually monasteries .The presence of a refectory i » a good indicator, but what about the so-called courtyard monaster ies? Rodley notes that several of the courtyard complexes lack churches: that the quality of the painted decoration   By antinists lo look lor similar forms and a similar organiza tion in the East. Bui. as with church planning. Byzantine monasteries followed their own direction. In Byzantium as sociations between monastic planning and domestic archi tecture may be closer than in the West. Paul Magdalino has noted the similarities between By/antine household organi zation and monastic organization, and there arc recorded in stances of palaces being converted to monasteries without signiticant change. All of this goes to say that a typology based on Western European models or a similarity of forms may provide an erroneous picture of Byzaniinc monasticism Third misconception. Byzantine architecture is dull. In their introductory textbook to the history of architecture. Trachtenberg and Hyman dismiss later Byzantine architec ture because â€Å"nothing truly radical was built. complaining that space no longer breathes but seems almost airless. Ar chitectural gestures arc no longer bold, but nervous and in hibited. According to them, these Byzantine developments cannot rightly be called medieval, but arc merely dehydrated Hagia Sophias. Arc these fair criticisms for an introductory textbook? Perhaps we expect Byzantine architecture to be something that it isnt. As fur as I can tell. Trachtenberg and Hyman expect it to be Gothic. Byzantine descriptions of architecture may help to refocus our view, because they tell us what the medieval viewer found noteworthy. In most descriptions, the details are given precedence at the expense of the clear delinea- tion of live structure. Plans arc never dcscribcJ. vet the dif ferent types of marbles are itemized, and certain impressive furnishings arc presented in detail. In a description of the monastery of Kauleas at Constantinople. leo VI (886-912) paid special attention to the mosaics and the marbles, con cluding. These have a beauty that corresponds exactly to that of the rest of the church. 40 A building becomes a sum of components, described close-up and selectively, whereas the overall form remains nebulous. The same emphasis on detail is evident when wc exam ine the architecture. It may be cxprcvscd through a concern for individual components, tor the decorated surface rather than the unification of architectural forms, or simply through architectural changes carried out on a small scale and in volving only certain parts of a building. To properly under stand Byantioc architecture. I suspect we should be looking at the little picture rather than the big picture. Understood on its own terms. Byzantine architecture has not only charm, but a valuable position in the history of architecture It is possible to view Byzantine architeciure as a parallel to the Western European developments: scale and form may differ, but similar structural and aesthetic concerns arc ad dressed in both cultures, with varying results. For example, the structural clarity of the Nlyrclaion parallels that of the Romanesque. The sophisticated structural system of Hosios Loukas might Ire compared to an early Gothic system. The unity of aesthetic and structural concerns, seen in the intenor design of the Chora, may parallel the High Gothic The em phasis on formal concerns at the expense of structural clarity, seen at the Pammakarislos. corresponds to Hite Gothic But this is not to say that one necessarily depended upon or influenced the other Rather, it suggests (hat both addressed the specific needs of societies in more-or-less similar stages of development, albeit with different social and economic structures. In the final analysis, the differences in the archi tecture arc as illuminating as the similarities. But our under standing of one culture should not limit our interpretation of the other—or of the ‘ Other.